The European digital identity landscape is undergoing a fundamental transformation. With eIDAS 2.0 and the mandatory EUDI Wallet by 2026, fragmented national standalone solutions are being transformed into a harmonized ecosystem. Six EU pilot projects with over 600 partners are testing practical implementation in real-world scenarios. While Nordic countries are making progress with penetration rates over 70 percent, other regions are catching up rapidly. This analysis documents the status quo of a transformation that is redefining digital sovereignty.
Introduction
Since our last comprehensive analyses of the European e-identity landscape in 2017 and 2018, the topic of digital identity has undergone fundamental changes. Back then, we reported on a fragmented landscape characterized by a multitude of national isolated solutions, differing technical standards, and limited cross-border interoperability.
Today, in the fall of 2025, a fundamentally different picture emerges. The European e-identity landscape is in the midst of a paradigm shift. With the entry into force of the eIDAS 2.0 Regulation in May 2024, the European Union has set the course for a harmonized, cross-border digital identity ecosystem. At the heart of this transformation is the European Digital Identity Wallet (EUDI Wallet), which must be deployed by all EU member states by the end of 2026.
Our current study shows significant growth in digital identity solutions in Europe. But the quantitative increase only tells part of the story. More crucial is the qualitative shift: from national fragmentation to European harmonization, from proprietary isolated solutions to interoperable ecosystems, and from purely government-driven initiatives to an increased public-private partnership dynamic.
This article highlights the regulatory changes, analyzes the current provider landscape, and takes a detailed look at developments in various European regions. A special focus is on the six EU-funded pilot projects, which are testing the practical implementation of the EUDI Wallet in real-world application scenarios with over 600 partners.
1 The Regulatory Framework: A European eID Puzzle
The European regulatory landscape for digital identities resembles a complex puzzle whose pieces have only begun to come together in recent years. Several regulations and directives interact to create the framework for a functioning digital identity ecosystem. Each of these regulatory pieces addresses a specific aspect, but only their interaction enables the vision of a secure, user-friendly, and cross-border system.
1.1 eIDAS 2.0: The Foundation of the System
The adoption of Regulation (EU) 2024/1183, known as eIDAS 2.0, marks the central building block of the European identity ecosystem. After intensive negotiations, the revised regulation was published in the Official Journal of the European Union on April 30, 2024, and entered into force on May 20, 2024.
Unlike the original eIDAS regulation of 2014, eIDAS 2.0 requires the mandatory provision of digital identity solutions. The new regulation defines clear deadlines: By September 2026, all EU member states must provide at least one certified EUDI wallet. From November 2027, companies and organizations that require citizens to identify or authenticate themselves are required to accept the EUDI wallet as a valid means of identification. This particularly applies to regulated industries such as financial services providers and telecommunications providers. The European Commission aims for at least 80 percent of EU citizens to actively use an EUDI wallet by 2030.
The technical specifications were finalized in November 2024 through three central implementing regulations. These define the integrity and core functionalities of the wallets, the protocols and interfaces, and the notification procedures. The Architecture and Reference Framework forms the technical basis, which is continuously being developed further.
The EUDI wallet differs conceptually from existing national eID solutions due to its comprehensive functionality. It functions as a secure, smartphone-based digital wallet in which users can store their government-certified basic data (Personal Identification Data), additional certificates (Electronic Attestations of Attributes), and qualified proofs. The principle of user autonomy is crucial: citizens have complete control over their data and decide for themselves which information they want to share with which service providers.
According to eIDAS 2.0, three trust levels are distinguished: low for simple authentication, substantial for transactions such as account opening, and high for official processes and qualified electronic signatures. The discrepancy between national requirements harbors the potential for a new form of fragmentation within the EUDI ecosystem.
1.2 The Interlocking of Regulations
While eIDAS 2.0 forms the core, it only functions in conjunction with other regulatory building blocks. This interlocking creates a coherent overall system for digital identities and data protection.
The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) provides the data protection framework for all digital identity solutions. Its principles, such as privacy by design, privacy by default, and data minimization, are directly incorporated into the EUDI Wallet specifications. The right to erasure and data portability enshrined in the GDPR are implemented in the wallet functionalities. Without the GDPR as a legal basis, the trustworthiness of the entire system would be at risk.
The Payment Services Directive 2 (PSD2) (or PSD3/PSR) creates a direct link between digital identity and financial services. It enables regulated third-party service providers to access account information with the account holder’s consent. These third-party service providers are identified using qualified website certificates and seals, trust services defined by eIDAS. In conjunction with the EUDI Wallet, users could in future store verified bank details as a certificate in their wallet and use them for various purposes, from income verification for loan applications to simplified tax returns.
The Anti-Money Laundering Directive (AMLD) explicitly requires the use of electronic identification means in accordance with eIDAS for Know Your Customer processes. This creates a direct link between the digital identity infrastructure and the compliance requirements of the financial sector. The European Commission has established a group of experts specifically focused on the cross-border use of electronic identification means for KYC processes. For financial institutions, this opens up the prospect of digitizing their onboarding processes while simultaneously reducing compliance costs.
This regulatory integration exemplifies how various EU initiatives are merging into a coherent digital ecosystem. Each piece of the puzzle fulfills a specific function, but only their interaction enables a functioning overall system. Further regulations such as the Cybersecurity Act and the NIS 2 Directive complement this picture by defining the security requirements for critical digital infrastructures. As a highly sensitive component, the EUDI Wallet is subject to correspondingly strict cybersecurity requirements.
2 The Changing European Provider Landscape
The European e-identity landscape has evolved significantly in recent years. Our current study documents a significant increase in digital identity solutions. While our 2018 analysis focused primarily on EU member states, Switzerland, and Norway, the current survey also covers developments in Southeastern Europe and Eastern European non-EU countries. This expansion reflects the global importance of the topic and the impact of the European regulatory framework beyond the EU’s borders.
The distribution by governance model reveals interesting developments. Public solutions continue to form the backbone of the European identity infrastructure, but their relative dominance has weakened slightly. At the same time, the number of private sector providers has increased significantly. Particularly noteworthy is the strong growth of public-private partnerships, which have proven to be a particularly successful model. This reflects the realization that the successful establishment of digital identity ecosystems requires both government legitimacy and trustworthiness as well as private-sector innovation and market expertise.
Of the identified solutions, only a portion have successfully completed the eIDAS notification process and are thus recognized for public services in all EU member states. The geographical distribution shows clear clusters in the Nordic countries, the Baltic states, and Western and Southern Europe. Germany was the first country to notify the online ID function of its national identity card in September 2017. Italy followed with its national eID system, SPID. It is noteworthy that some countries have notified multiple systems, illustrating the diversity of implementation approaches.
2.1 Visualization of the European Solution Landscape
The following illustration shows the prevalence and distribution of digital identity solutions in Europe by country and governance model. The chart shows both the geographical density of implementations and the different approaches taken by Member States in implementing their national eID strategies. The data used can be found in Table 1 in the appendix.
2.2 EUDI Wallet as a Growth Driver
One of the most striking developments is the proliferation of EUDI wallet initiatives. We were able to identify numerous solutions that are explicitly designed as EUDI wallets or meet the technical requirements for EUDI compliance.
Germany leads in terms of the number of identified EUDI wallet solutions, followed by the Netherlands and several countries with two solutions each, such as Finland, France, Greece, the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Slovakia. This reflects the size and digital maturity of these markets, but also the competition between public and private sector approaches.
Almost all EU member states are currently developing public EUDI wallets to meet the regulatory requirements by September 2026. At the same time, private providers are experimenting with innovative approaches, particularly in the area of self-sovereign identity and blockchain-based solutions.
2.3 Evolution of Provider Types
In our 2018 article, we noted a clear dominance of government-run solutions, particularly in the area of high-quality identification in accordance with anti-money laundering laws. Private-sector providers primarily focused on video identification procedures and login alliances with low security levels.
The current situation is significantly more differentiated. Government-run solutions have evolved and are increasingly mobile-first oriented. The need to provide EUDI wallets by 2026 has triggered a significant surge in innovation. Many member states are seizing the opportunity to fundamentally modernize their eID systems, some of which are over 15 years old. Austria, for example, replaced its previous mobile signature solution with the ID Austria app, a modern application optimized for accessibility and user-friendliness.
Private-sector solutions have significantly expanded their portfolios. In addition to traditional video and AI-based identification solutions, specialized providers for various segments have emerged. Qualified Trust Service Providers offer qualified electronic signatures and seals, which are essential for the EUDI ecosystem. SSI wallet providers develop self-sovereign identity solutions, often as EUDI wallet prototypes. ID brokers and federated solutions aggregate various means of identification and make them accessible to service providers. Furthermore, specialized consulting and integration services have emerged to support organizations in implementing eID solutions.
Public-private partnerships have proven to be a particularly successful model, especially in the Nordic countries. The Swedish BankID, established in 2003 as a cooperation between Sweden’s largest banks, has achieved a penetration rate of over 70 percent of the population. The Danish MitID, in operation since 2021 as the successor to NemID, is the central means of identification for virtually all citizens. The Belgian itsme, an initiative of banks and telecommunications providers, was partially transferred into public ownership in 2021 and has established itself as one of the most widely deployed mobile eID systems in Europe. These examples illustrate that successful digital identity solutions often emerge at the interface between public trust anchors and private sector execution.
A significant shift is evident in the widespread adoption of mobile identity solutions. While card-based systems with dedicated hardware once dominated, smartphone-based solutions are now the standard. The vast majority of identification solutions are primarily or exclusively mobile, reflecting changing usage habits and technological possibilities.
3 Regional Developments: A Europe of Different Speeds
Despite the harmonizing effect of eIDAS 2.0, the European e-identity landscape is still characterized by significant regional differences. While some countries have been using digital identity solutions comprehensively for over two decades, others are only now beginning to systematically develop corresponding infrastructures.
3.1 Nordic Countries: The Pioneers
The Nordic countries will remain the undisputed pioneers in the field of digital identity in 2025. Their leading position is based on several factors, including early investments in digital infrastructure, high societal acceptance of digital solutions, transparent governance, and pragmatic public-private partnerships.
With BankID, developed since 2003 as a cooperation between Sweden’s largest banks, Sweden has established one of the most successful eID systems worldwide. With over seven million users and a population of 10.5 million, BankID achieves a penetration rate of approximately 70 percent. The solution is used for virtually all digital government services, banking transactions, and even everyday services such as library registrations or gym memberships. EFOS, a government-sponsored eID system specifically for the public sector, exists in parallel. Both systems are eIDAS-notified. The Digitaliseringsmyndigheten acts as the coordinating authority and ensures interoperability between different solutions.
Norway pursues a decentralized approach. The government agency Digitaliseringsdi-rektoratet coordinates four different eID systems, all of which are usable in the public sector. This federation solution, called ID-porten, ensures interoperability and allows users to choose their preferred eID solution. The Norwegian BankID dominates with 3.7 million users and a population of 5.5 million. Norway coordinated the NOBID pilot project and is heavily involved in WE BUILD.
Denmark replaced the previous NemID with MitID in 2021. MitID is a mandatory eID for all citizens aged 15 and older and has achieved a penetration rate of nearly 100 percent. Mandatory digital communication with government agencies since 2012 has accelerated adoption. MitID, developed as a public-private partnership between the Danish government and Nets, is eIDAS-notified and serves both government contacts and private services. The eGovernment Monitor attests Denmark top marks in the use of e-government services and citizen satisfaction.
Finland has used TUPAS, an online banking-based authentication system operated by Finnish banks, for many years. FINeID also exists as a government eID solution. Findy, a modern SSI-based wallet solution, has been developed. Iceland is developing a national EUDI wallet and, despite its small population, has a highly developed digital infrastructure.
The Nordic countries demonstrate that early investments pay off in the long run, that public-private partnerships can be highly efficient, and that interoperability between different solutions is more important than monopoly formation.
3.2 DACH Region: Different Paths to the Same Goal
The DACH region exhibits significant differences in its approach to digital identity, although cultural and linguistic proximity suggest similarities.
Germany introduced a technically sophisticated eID solution with the electronic ID card in 2010. However, adoption remained disappointing for a long time. The 2024 eGovernment Monitor showed a usage rate of only 22 percent. The reasons are varied. Until recently, hardware hurdles required a special card reader. The lack of use cases led to a chicken-and-egg problem. Lack of communication and data protection concerns reinforced this reluctance. Encouragingly, usage has increased significantly since 2022 and now reaches 40 percent among younger generations.
The German Federal Government has commissioned SPRIN-D to conduct an innovation competition for German EUDI wallet prototypes. Several private-sector providers are developing their own solutions in parallel. The Federal Ministry for Digital Affairs and State Modernization is leading the national EUDI wallet implementation. Germany and France are coordinating the POTENTIAL consortium. The digital driver’s license has been in its pilot phase since April 2025, but only for the vehicle registration document, not for the driver’s license itself.
In addition to the public system, a vibrant private sector provider scene is emerging. In addition to traditional video identification providers, specialized players for eID integration, login alliances, and government user accounts have emerged.
Austria has taken a pragmatic approach with ID Austria. The solution is mobile-first, designed for ease of use, and integrated into existing services. With approximately three million users and a population of nine million, ID Austria has already achieved considerable penetration. The eGovernment Monitor ranks Austria first in the DACH comparison. 66 percent of smartphone owners who have already used e-government did so via mobile. Awareness of ID Austria is 94 percent.
In June 2025, the ID Austria app was fundamentally revised with a focus on accessibility and intuitiveness. Austria’s EUDI Wallet, Valera, has already been deployed and is in the rollout phase. This makes Austria one of the few countries to have a functional EUDI Wallet before the 2026 deadline. Austria’s success is based on a consistent mobile focus, high awareness through intensive communication, practical benefits through broad acceptance, and continuous development based on user feedback.
As a non-EU member, Switzerland faces the unique situation of not being directly affected by eIDAS 2.0, yet still striving for interoperability with the EU. The initial attempt at a state-recognized e-ID with SuisseID failed due to excessive costs and technical complexity. As a private-sector alternative, SwissID was launched in 2017 as a joint venture between Swiss Post, SBB (Swiss Federal Railways), Swisscom, and other partners, and now reaches over four million users.
A first referendum on an e-ID in 2021 failed with two-thirds of the votes against, as it would have required private companies to issue the e-ID. On September 28, 2025, the electorate narrowly approved (50.4 percent) a revised law under which the federal government assumes full responsibility for the e-ID. The state-issued e-ID will be available free of charge via the “swiyu” app starting in summer 2026. At the end of October 2025, TWINT, the leading payment app in Switzerland with over six million users, announced that it would also open its platform to the new government e-ID and regulated digital currencies, which could significantly accelerate acceptance.
3.3 Baltic States: Digitalization Pioneers
The Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania consciously embraced digital transformation after gaining independence, thereby overcoming legacy structures.
Estonia is considered the digital nation par excellence. The country began building a comprehensive digital infrastructure back in the 1990s. The Estonian ID card, introduced in 2002, serves as an identity card, health insurance card, voting card, travel card, and access key to all e-government services. 99 percent of all government services are available online. 98 percent of tax returns are submitted digitally, with an average processing time of three to five minutes. These figures are unique worldwide.
The technical basis is X-Road, a decentralized data exchange platform that securely connects various databases. This concept has proven resistant to cyberattacks and has been exported to several other countries. Estonia is developing a national EUDI wallet and actively contributing its extensive expertise to the European debate.
With e-Residency, Estonia has been offering a digital identity to non-Estonians since 2014. Over 100,000 people from 180 countries have applied for e-Residency, primarily to establish and manage remote businesses in Estonia.
Latvia and Lithuania are following similar paths, albeit with somewhat lower international visibility. Both countries have established comprehensive eID systems. Latvia has a mobile eID solution, eParaksts Mobile. Lithuania relies heavily on mobile signatures and was an early adopter of blockchain technology for certain administrative processes.
3.4 Western Europe: Large Markets, Diverse Dynamics
France is impressively demonstrating systematic digital transformation. With France Identité, the French government has been developing a mobile-first eID app since 2023, gradually integrating digital versions of all important documents. The digital identity card was introduced in 2023, followed by the digital driver’s license in 2024, and the digital health card in 2025. This systematic approach is showing results. France coordinates the POTENTIAL consortium with Germany and leads the APTITUDE consortium. The French approach is more centralized, with a centralized government solution and a clear governance structure.
The Netherlands is pursuing a hybrid approach. DigiD, a government eID solution for government services, has existed since 2005. In parallel, iDIN, a bank-based identification system, has been established. The Dutch openness to innovative approaches is remarkable. Yivi, a privacy-oriented, SSI-based solution, has been developed. The Chamber of Commerce and Industry coordinates the WE BUILD consortium, which focuses on business identity.
With itsme, Belgium has established one of Europe’s most successful e-ID solutions. Originally launched as a private sector initiative in 2017, itsme was partially transferred into public ownership in 2021. itsme has become the de facto standard for digital identification in Belgium, both in the public and private sectors. The solution was eIDAS-notified in 2024. Parallel to this, .beID, the traditional chip card-based government eID, exists.
3.5. Southern Europe: Catching up and ambitious goals
Some Southern European countries started developing digital identity infrastructures later than Northern and Western Europe, but are catching up rapidly.
Italy introduced a federated eID system, SPID, in 2016. Private identity providers issue SPID identities, which can be used to access all public services. SPID now reaches over 35 million users. In parallel, another notified eID solution, the CIE, exists. In 2024, Italy deployed a national EUDI wallet, the IT Wallet. The government has announced ambitious goals for all important documents to be available in the IT Wallet by the end of 2025.
Spain faces the challenge of having various eID systems at both the national and regional levels. Coordination between these systems is complex. A national EUDI wallet, Cartera Digital Beta, is currently in the pilot phase. Portugal has achieved high penetration with the Cartão de Cidadão and the Chave Móvel Digital. Greece already has an active system with the Gov.gr Wallet. Cyprus and Malta, as small island states, can quickly roll out innovations across the board.
3.6 Eastern Europe: Heterogeneous Development
The Eastern European EU member states are experiencing heterogeneous development.
The Czech Republic has taken a remarkable approach. Three different eID systems have been notified: the national eID card, the Mobile eGovernment Key, and BankID. This diversity gives citizens true freedom of choice. In addition, a mobile wallet, eDoklady, has been deployed. Poland has developed mObywatel, a mobile-first eID app that has already been deployed and is being used intensively. Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, and Croatia have all established eID systems and are at various stages of EUDI wallet development.
3.7 Southeastern Europe and Non-EU Countries
It is noteworthy that countries outside the EU are also developing digital identity solutions, often based on EU standards.
Ukraine has written a success story with the Diia app under the most difficult conditions. Launched in 2019, Diia has achieved impressive adoption despite the war. The app bundles over 50 different government services and documents. Diia is recognized internationally as a role model. Ukraine has announced that it will make Diia EUDI-compatible to enable European interoperability.
Balkan states such as Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia are all working on digital identity solutions. Albania has announced an EUDI wallet for 2026, even though it is not yet an EU member. This demonstrates the willingness to implement EU standards in advance.
4 EU Large-Scale Pilots: Practical Tests for EUDI Wallet
The large-scale pilots funded by the European Commission play a key role in the development and testing of the EUDI Wallet. Unlike theoretical specifications, they enable testing in real-world application scenarios involving hundreds of organizations from the public and private sectors. The insights from these pilot projects flow directly into the further development of the Architecture and Reference Framework and help identify potential interoperability issues at an early stage.
The European Commission is funding a total of six large-scale pilots with a total budget in the tens of millions of euros through the Digital Europe Programme. Four pilots started in 2023 and are in the final phase, and two more were launched in 2025.
4.1 First generation of pilot projects
POTENTIAL
| Coordination | Germany (Federal Ministry of the Interior) France (Ministère de l'Intérieur) |
| Consortium | 19 EU Member States + Ukraine >140 Partners |
| Duration | December 2022 to the end of 2025 |
| Use Cases | eGovernment-Services (passport application, change of address, tax) Banking (account opening, KYC) Telecommunikations (SIM card registration) Mobile Driving License (digital driver's license) Qualified Electronic Signature (QES) Electronic Prescription (cross-border) |
POTENTIAL is the largest and broadest-covering of the four original pilot projects. It addresses six key application areas that cover virtually all relevant life situations. The consortium was the first to conduct an innovation competition to evaluate various wallet implementation approaches. The finalist prototypes have been tested in cross-border scenarios since January 2025. This competitive approach is intended to ensure that a monolithic standard does not emerge, but that different technical implementations remain interoperable.
The project has also worked intensively on the development of verifier solutions. While much attention is focused on the wallet apps themselves, functioning, user-friendly verification solutions for relying parties are essential for the system’s acceptance.
EWC – EU Digital Identity Wallet Consortium
| Coordination | Sweden (Bolagsverket) Finland |
| Consortium | 41 partners, 35 associated partners |
| Duration | March 2023 to March 2025 (Phase 1) Extension until 2025 |
| Use Cases | Digital Travel Credentials (digital passport) Payments (payment method integration) Organizational Digital Identity (LPID) |
The EU Digital Identity Wallet Consortium focuses on three key areas, with the primary focus being the implementation of digital travel documents. The EUDI Wallet is intended to serve as a digital passport that can be used at automated border control systems and for flight bookings.
During Phase 1, EWC gathered extensive insights into the acceptance of digital identity solutions. A key finding is that acceptance varies greatly between member states and depends significantly on digital maturity, political factors, and trust in digital solutions.
The consortium conducted practical interoperability tests early on. Successful cross-border verifications between Swedish and Finnish wallet implementations were achieved as early as 2023, which is considered a proof of concept for the technical feasibility of the European approach.
NOBID – Nordic-Baltic eID Project
| Coordination | Norway (Digitaliseringsdirektoratet) |
| Consortium | 6 countries >20 partners |
| Duration | March 2023 to March 2025 (completed) |
| Use Cases | Payment Authorization Age Verification |
NOBID primarily focuses on two application areas that have immediate everyday relevance. The use of the EUDI Wallet for authorizing account-to-account payments in retail demonstrates how the wallet can serve both to identify the payer and to authenticate the transaction in accordance with PSD2 requirements.
Age verification without revealing the full identity is a prime example of selective disclosure. The merchant only learns “over 18” or “over 21,” but not the name, date of birth, or other identity characteristics.
The project has worked intensively with the retail sector. Several retail chains have conducted pilot installations in selected stores to test the customer journey from product selection to age verification and payment processing. A particular focus was on integration with existing payment infrastructures, rather than building parallel systems.
DC4EU – Digital Credentials for Europe
| Coordination | No clear leading nation |
| Consortium | 25 countries + Ukraine >99 partners |
| Duration | February 2023 to February 2025 (completed) |
| Use Cases | Education (digital educational certificates) Social Security (social security certificates) |
Digital Credentials for Europe addresses two areas of high social relevance. The consortium has intensively focused on the verification of credentials originating from a multitude of different issuers (schools, universities, social insurance providers). The challenge lies in establishing a trusted network that enables verifying parties to verify the authenticity and validity of certificates without having to maintain direct relationships with all potential issuers.
The consortium has experimented with the European Blockchain Services Infrastructure, a blockchain-based infrastructure for credential verification developed by the EU. However, the integration of EBSI components led to additional complexity and partially delayed implementation.
The work on the digital EHIC is particularly relevant. The possibility of accessing medical care abroad in the EU via a wallet without having to carry physical cards would have significant practical significance for millions of people.
4.2 Second generation of pilot projects
APTITUDE – Advanced Pilots for Travel Innovation and EUDI Wallet
| Coordination | France (Direction interministérielle du numérique) |
| Consortium | 11 EU Member States + Ukraine 118 partners |
| Duration | October 2025 to October 2027 (presumably) |
| Use Cases | Travel & Mobility (deepening and expansion) Payments (advanced use cases) |
APTITUDE deepens and expands the work of the EWC consortium in two areas. The consortium is launching with the advantage of being able to build on the findings of the first generation. With 118 partners from 11 member states plus Ukraine, APTITUDE is the second-largest consortium after WE BUILD. The broad international participation is intended to ensure that the developed solutions truly function across borders.
The focus on mobile vehicle documents (driver’s license, registration certificate) addresses a use case with immediate everyday relevance. In many EU countries, carrying these documents while driving is required by law. A mobile version would provide millions of daily benefits.
WE BUILD – Wallet for European Business Identity and Legal Documentation
| Coordination | Netherlands (Kamer van Koophandel - KVK) Sweden |
| Consortium | >200 partners |
| Duration | September 2025 to September 2027 |
| Use Cases | Legal Person Identification Data (LPID) B2B & B2G Processes Ultimate Beneficial Owner (UBO) Power of Attorney B2C & Payments |
WE BUILD is the most ambitious and largest of the large-scale pilots, with over 200 partners. Coordination by the Dutch Chamber of Commerce is a natural fit, as commercial registers are the central source of corporate data.
The focus on business identity addresses a previously under-researched aspect of the EUDI ecosystem. While natural persons are at the center of most discussions, corporate transactions account for a significant portion of the digital economy. The digitalization of processes such as public procurement, business registrations, and cross-border trade transactions promises significant efficiency gains.
The Dutch government has described WE BUILD as a strategic initiative to strengthen the competitiveness of European companies. The kick-off in Amsterdam in September 2025 was attended by high-level officials and was seen as a signal that Europe is also striving for digital sovereignty in the B2B sector.
4.3 Overall findings from the pilot projects
A technical meeting in January 2025, organized by the Dutch LSP Coordination Office with representatives from POTENTIAL, EWC, and DC4EU, revealed key challenges.
All pilot projects faced the problem that the Architecture and Reference Framework and the Reference Implementations were provided late and with insufficient detail. This led the consortia to pursue different technical strategies. EWC opted to make independent implementation decisions early on, POTENTIAL waited for the ARF, and DC4EU built on EBSI components.
Although all pilots share the common goal of developing interoperable EUDI wallet solutions, practical differences exist in versions, implementation scope, and national approaches. Cross-border credential exchange is possible in principle but requires significant harmonization efforts.
The differing member states’ requirements regarding the level of trust for wallet registration effectively create different wallet classes. A wallet registered in Italy with video identification may not be accepted for all government services in Germany.
While much development effort has gone into wallet applications, user-friendly, secure verifier solutions remain a bottleneck. Many potential relying parties, especially small and medium-sized enterprises, lack the technical expertise or resources to implement complex verification systems.
The pilot projects have confirmed that the acceptance of the EUDI wallet depends largely on the user experience. Complicated registration processes, unintuitive design, or technical hurdles can lead to resistance, even when mandatory use is required by regulations.
5 Conclusion
The European e-identity landscape has undergone fundamental changes since our 2018 analyses. A fragmented collection of national isolated solutions is transforming into a coordinated, harmonized ecosystem of digital identities. eIDAS 2.0 and the EUDI Wallet are the catalysts of this transformation.
Europe is taking digital sovereignty seriously. While American and Chinese tech giants dominate proprietary identity platforms, Europe is focusing on open standards, interoperability, and user autonomy. The large-scale pilots, with over 600 participating organizations, demonstrate that cross-border digital identity is technically feasible. The challenges lie less in the technology than in governance, user acceptance, and ecosystem development.
Regional differences will persist for the foreseeable future. The Nordic countries remain pioneers, while others are catching up. What is crucial is that all member states follow the same path, at different paces, but in the same direction.
For companies, the introduction of the EUDI Wallet represents both an opportunity and an obligation. The opportunity lies in simplified, secure identification and authentication processes, efficiency gains in KYC and onboarding, and new service options. The obligation arises from the fact that regulated industries must accept the EUDI Wallet starting in November 2027.
For citizens, the EUDI Wallet promises more control over their own data, convenience through the bundling of various forms of identification, and cross-border usability. The challenge lies in striking a balance between data protection and user-friendliness and building trust in new technologies.
Europe is at a turning point. The coming years will show whether the vision of a unified, secure, user-centric digital identity ecosystem will become a reality. The foundations have been laid. Now the real work begins: the transformation of specifications into functioning, everyday solutions.
The story of digital identity in Europe will not end in 2025; it is just beginning its next chapter.
Appendix: Overview of digital identity solutions in Europe 2025
The following overview documents the current state of digital identity solutions in Europe based on a systematic survey conducted between September and October 2025. It forms the empirical basis for the analyses presented in the article and shows the diversity of implementation approaches, governance models, and technical solutions in the individual countries.
| Country | Name of Solution | Provider / Operator | Governance | Year | URL |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Albania | Albanian National ID Card (biometric) | Aleat / IDEMIA | Public | 2009 | https://www.idemia.com |
| Albania | e-Albania Digital ID | IdentiTek (state-owned enterprise) / Ministry of Internal Affairs | Public | 2026 (planned) | https://me.rks-gov.net |
| Belarus | Belarus Biometric Passport | Ministry of Internal Affairs / Emperor Technology / X Infotech | Public | 2021 | https://www.mvd.gov.by |
| Belarus | Belarus ID Card (biometric) | Ministry of Internal Affairs / Emperor Technology / X Infotech / RUE Cryptotech | Public | 2021 | https://www.mpt.gov.by |
| Belarus | BISRS (Belarusian Integrated Service and Settlement System) | Ministry of Communications and Informatization | Public | 2021 | https://www.mpt.gov.by/ru/o-bisrs |
| Belarus | E-Pasluga Portal | National Center for Electronic Services (NCES) | Public | 2021 | https://e-pasluga.by |
| Belarus | Electronic Digital Signature (EDS) | National Center for Electronic Services (NCES) | Public | Before 2021 | https://pki.gov.by |
| Belgium | .beID (national eID card) | Belgian government | Public | 2004 | https://eid.belgium.be/ |
| Belgium | itsme | Belgian Mobile ID (Banks & Telcos) | PPP | 2017 | https://www.itsme-id.com/ |
| Belgium | National ID Card (Foreigners & Citizens) | Belgian government | Public | 2004 | https://eid.belgium.be/ |
| Belgium | National EUDI Wallet | Belgian government | Public | 2025 | |
| Bosnia and Herzegowina | BiH Biometric ID Card | IDDEEA | Public | 2013 | https://www.iddeea.gov.ba |
| Bosnia and Herzegowina | e-IDDEEA Digital ID App | IDDEEA (Agency for Identification Documents, Registers and Data Exchange) | Public | 2025 | https://www.iddeea.gov.ba |
| Bosnia and Herzegowina | Qualified Electronic Signature (QES) | IDDEEA | Public | 2024 | https://www.iddeea.gov.ba |
| Bulgaria | Evrotrust eID | Evrotrust Technologies AD | Private | 2016 | https://evrotrust.com/ |
| Bulgaria | National eID-Card | Bulgarian government | Public | 2009 | |
| Denmark | CitizenKey | CitizenKey Foundation (planned) | Private | 2017-2018 | |
| Denmark | MitID | Danish Digital Government Agency | PPP | 2021 | https://www.mitid.dk/ |
| Denmark | MitID Erhverv | Danish Digital Government Agency | PPP | 2022 | https://www.mitid-erhverv.dk/ |
| Denmark | National EUDI Wallet | Nine (Trifork Group) | Public | 2026 | |
| Germany | AusweisIDent | Federal Printing Office | Public | 2017 | https://www.bundesdruckerei.de/ |
| Germany | Authada | Authada GmbH | Private | 2018 | https://www.authada.de/ |
| Germany | BundID | Federal Ministry of the Interior and Home Affairs (BMI) | Public | 2019 | https://id.bund.de/ |
| Germany | ecsec | ecsec GmbH | Private | 2010 | https://www.ecsec.de/ |
| Germany | ELSTER Unternehmenskonto | Financial Administration/ELSTER (Public) | Public | 2023 | https://info.mein-unternehmenskonto.de/ |
| Germany | esatus AG | esatus AG | Private | 2002 | https://www.esatus.com/ |
| Germany | Governikus | Governikus KG | Private | 2005 | https://www.governikus.de/ |
| Germany | Helix ID | Helix ID GmbH | Private | 2020 | |
| Germany | IDnow | IDNow GmbH | Private | 2014 | https://www.idnow.io/ |
| Germany | Lissi ID | Lissi GmbH | Private | 2019 | https://www.lissi.id/ |
| Germany | msg mySaveID | msg systems AG | Private | 2019 | |
| Germany | National EUDI Wallet | SPRIND, BMDS, BMI, BSI, Federal Printing Office, Fraunhofer AISEC, PwC | Public | 2026-2027 | https://www.sprind.org/eudi-wallet |
| Germany | Nect | Nect GmbH | Private | 2017 | https://nect.com/ |
| Germany | NetID | NetID GmbH (Publisher Alliance) | Private | 2018 | https://netid.de/ |
| Germany | Personalausweis (eID-Function) | Federal Ministry of the Interior | Public | 2010 | https://www.personalausweisportal.de/ |
| Germany | PostID | Deutsche Post AG | Private (close to the state) | 1996 | https://www.deutschepost.de/postident |
| Germany | Sign8 | Sign8 GmbH | Private | 2017 | |
| Germany | Verimi | Verimi GmbH | Private | 2017 | https://verimi.de/ |
| Germany | WebID | WebID Solutions GmbH | Private | 2012 | https://www.webid-solutions.de/ |
| Germany | wwWallet | Consortium (Sunet, GUnet, Yubico) | Private | 2024 | |
| Estonia | Diplomatic ID Card | Estonian Ministry of the Interior (RIA) | Public | 2002 | |
| Estonia | e-Residency | Estonian Ministry of the Interior (RIA) | Public | 2014 | https://www.e-resident.gov.ee/ |
| Estonia | ID-Kaart / Digi-ID | Estonian Ministry of the Interior (RIA) | Public | 2002 | https://www.id.ee/ |
| Estonia | Mobiil-ID (Mobile-ID) | Estonian Mobile Operators | Private | 2007 | https://www.id.ee/mobiil-id/ |
| Estonia | National EUDI Wallet | Estonian Government | Public | 2026-2027 | |
| Estonia | Smart-ID | SK ID Solutions | Private | 2016 | https://www.smart-id.com/ |
| Estonia | Veriff | Veriff | Private | 2015 | https://www.veriff.com/ |
| EU (LSP) | APTITUDE | Consortium (118 Partners) | PPP | 2025 | |
| EU (LSP) | DC4EU (Digital Credentials for Europe) | Consortium (99 Institutions) | PPP | 2023 | |
| EU (LSP) | EWC (EU Digital Identity Wallet Consortium) | Consortium (41 P, 35 AP) | PPP | 2023 | |
| EU (LSP) | NOBID | Consortium (20+ Partners) | PPP | 2023 | |
| EU (LSP) | POTENTIAL | Consortium (140+ Partners) | PPP | 2023 | |
| EU (LSP) | WE BUILD | Consortium (200+ Partners) | PPP | 2025 | |
| Finland | Findy | Findy Cooperative | PPP | 2020 | https://findy.fi/ |
| Finland | Finnish Trust Network (FTN) | Finnish Government | Public | 2010 | |
| Finland | Henkilökortti (National ID Card) | Finnish Government | Public | 1999 | |
| Finland | National EUDI Wallet | Digital and Population Data Services Agency (DVV) | Public | 2026 | https://dvv.fi/en/european-digital-identity-wallet |
| France | Aevatar | Aevatar SAS | Private | 2018 | |
| France | Ameli | Assurance Maladie | Public | 2009 | https://www.ameli.fr/ |
| France | Carte Vitale (App) | French Government | Public | 2025 | |
| France | France Identité (App) | French Ministry of the Interior | Public | 2024 | https://france-identite.gouv.fr/ |
| France | FranceConnect | DINSIC | Public | 2016 | https://franceconnect.gouv.fr/ |
| France | Identité Numérique (La Poste) | La Poste | Public | 2019 | |
| France | IDnow (ehem. Ariadnext) | IDnow | Private | 2012 | https://www.idnow.io/ |
| France | Impots.gouv | French Government | Public | 2001 | https://www.impots.gouv.fr/ |
| France | Mobile Connect | Orange S.A. | Private | 2014 | |
| France | Netheos | Netheos | Private | 2011 | |
| Greece | Gov.gr Wallet | Greek Ministry of Digital Governance | Public | 2022 | https://wallet.gov.gr/ |
| Greece | National EUDI Wallet | Greek Government | Public | 2026 | |
| Greece | Taxisnet | Greek Tax Authority | Public | 2002 | https://www.gsis.gr/ |
| Great Britain | Digi.me | Digi.me Ltd. | Private | 2009 | https://digi.me/ |
| Great Britain | GOV.UK One Login | Government Digital Service (GDS) | Public | 2022 | https://www.sign-in.service.gov.uk/ |
| Great Britain | GOV.UK Verify (historisch) | GDS (with IdPs such as Digidentity, Post Office) | PPP | 2016 | |
| Great Britain | OneID | OneID | Private | 2018 | https://www.oneid.com/ |
| Great Britain | Onfido | Entrust (acquisition) | Private | 2012 | https://onfido.com/ |
| Great Britain | Yoti | Yoti Ltd. | Private | 2014 | https://www.yoti.com/ |
| Ireland | MyGovID | Government of Ireland | Public | 2017 | https://www.mygovid.ie/ |
| Ireland | National EUDI Wallet | Irish Government | Public | 2026-2027 | |
| Iceland | Auðkenni | Auðkenni ehf. (banking consortium) | Private | 2008 | https://www.audkenni.is/ |
| Iceland | Authenteq | Authenteq | Private | 2016 | |
| Iceland | National EUDI Wallet | Icelandic Government | Public | 2027 | |
| Italy | CIE (Carta d'Identità Elettronica) | Italian Ministry of the Interior | Public | 2016 | https://www.cartaidentita.interno.gov.it/ |
| Italy | IT Wallet | Italian Ministry of Digitalization (via IO App) | Public | 2024 | https://io.italia.it/ |
| Italy | SPID | 12 accredited IdPs | PPP | 2016 | https://www.spid.gov.it/ |
| Kosovo | eID Kosovo Platform | Ministry of Economy / EU4Innovation Project | Public | 2024 | https://me.rks-gov.net |
| Kosovo | Kosovo Biometric ID Card | Ministry of Internal Affairs | Public | 2013 | https://www.mpb.rks-gov.net |
| Croatia | e-Grač‘ani | Croatian Government | Public | 2014 | https://gov.hr/ |
| Croatia | eOI / eOsobna + mToken (Mobile.ID) | Croatian Government | Public | 2013 | |
| Croatia | Identyum | Identyum d.o.o. | Private | 2018 | https://www.identyum.com/ |
| Latvia | eID Card (Personas apliecč«ba) | Latvian Government | Public | 2012 | https://www.latvija.lv/ |
| Latvia | eParaksts (Mobile) | LVRTC | PPP | 2010 | https://www.eparaksts.lv/ |
| Latvia | National EUDI Wallet | Latvian Government | Public | 2026-2027 | |
| Latvia | Verifeye Online | Verifeye online | Private | 2017 | |
| Liechtenstein | eID+ (LLV) | Liechtenstein State Administration | Public | 2009 | https://www.llv.li/ |
| Lithuania | eID Card (Asmens tapatybč—s kortelč—) | Lithuanian Ministry of the Interior | Public | 2009 | |
| Lithuania | Mobile ID (Mobilusis parašas) | Lithuanian Mobile Operators | Private | 2008 | |
| Lithuania | Ondato | Ondato | Private | 2019 | https://ondato.com/ |
| Lithuania | Smart-ID | SK ID Solutions | Private | 2016 | https://www.smart-id.com/ |
| Luxembourg | LuxTrust | LuxTrust S.A. | PPP | 2005 | https://www.luxtrust.com/ |
| Luxembourg | National ID Card | Luxembourg Government | Public | 2014 | |
| Malta | eID (myGov.mt) | Identity Malta Agency | Public | 2017 | https://www.mygov.mt/ |
| Montenegro | Montenegrin National ID Card (3rd Generation) | Ministry of the Interior / Mühlbauer ID Services GmbH / S&T | Public | 2020 | https://www.gov.me |
| Montenegro | National Identity Scheme | Ministry for Public Administration | Public | 2019-2020 | https://www.gov.me |
| Netherlands | Animo Easy-PID | Animo Solutions B.V. | Private | 2024 | https://animo.id/ |
| Netherlands | DigiD | Logius | Public | 2005 | https://www.digid.nl/ |
| Netherlands | Digidentity | Digidentity B.V. | Private | 2005 | https://www.digidentity.eu/ |
| Netherlands | eHerkenning | Accredited Privatee Providers | PPP | 2010 | https://www.eherkenning.nl/ |
| Netherlands | Fourthline | Fourthline B.V. | Private | 2017 | https://www.fourthline.com/ |
| Netherlands | iDIN | Betaalvereniging Nederland (Banks) | Private | 2013 | https://www.idin.nl/ |
| Netherlands | National EUDI Wallet | Dutch Government / Logius | Public | 2026-2027 | https://www.nldigitalgovernment.nl/ |
| Netherlands | SIDN | SIDN B.V. | Private | 1996 | https://www.sidn.nl/ |
| Netherlands | Yivi (ehem. IRMA) | SIDN B.V. | Private | 2016 | https://www.yivi.app/ |
| North Macedonia | e-Government Portal (portal.gov.mk) | Government of North Macedonia | Public | 2020 | https://portal.gov.mk |
| North Macedonia | ELI App (Digital ID Wallet) | Ministry of Digital Transformation | Public | 2024 | https://portal.gov.mk |
| North Macedonia | ID Service (operated by Evrotrust) | Mastercard / Evrotrust / MISA (Ministry of Information Society and Administration) | PPP | 2021 | https://evrotrust.mk / https://eid.com.mk |
| Norway | BankID | Finans Norge (banking sector) | Private | 2003 | https://www.bankid.no/ |
| Norway | Buypass | Buypass AS | Private | 2001 | https://www.buypass.no/ |
| Norway | Commfides | Commfides AS | Private | 2005 | https://www.commfides.com/ |
| Norway | MinID | Directorate for economic development and economics (DFØ) | Public | 2005 | https://www.minid.no/ |
| Norway | National EUDI Wallet | Norwegian government | Public | 2027 | |
| Norway | Signicat | Signicat AS | Private | 2007 | https://www.signicat.com/ |
| Austria | ID Austria | Federal Ministry of Finance/Digitalization | Public | 2023 | https://www.id-austria.gv.at/ |
| Austria | National EUDI Wallet (Valera) | A-SIT, Austrian Government | Public | 2024-2025 | https://a-sit-plus.github.io/ |
| Austria | SignD | SignD Identity Solutions GmbH | Private | 2017 | |
| Poland | eDO App / eDowód | Polish Government | Public | 2019 | |
| Poland | mObywatel | Polish Government | Public | 2018 | https://www.gov.pl/mobywatel |
| Poland | Profil Zaufany (Vertrauensprofil) | Polish Government | Public | 2013 | https://www.gov.pl/web/profil-zaufany |
| Portugal | Autenticação.gov | AMA | Public | 2007 | https://autenticacao.gov.pt/ |
| Portugal | Cartão de Cidadão (National ID Card) | Portuguese Government | Public | 2007 | https://www.autenticacao.gov.pt/ |
| Portugal | Chave Móvel Digital (Digital Mobile Key) | AMA | Public | 2014 | https://www.autenticacao.gov.pt/cmd |
| Portugal | SCAP (Professional Attributes Certification System) | AMA | Public | 2015 | |
| Romania | Carte Electronicčƒ de Identitate | Romanian Government | Public | 2021 | |
| Romania | ROeID | Romanian Government | Public | 2021 | https://roeid.ro/ |
| Sweden | BankID | BankID (banking consortium) | Private | 2003 | https://www.bankid.com/ |
| Sweden | DIGG | DIGG (Agency for Digital Government) | Public | 2018 | https://www.digg.se/ |
| Sweden | EFOS (E-identitet för offentlig sektor) | Försäkringskassan | Public | 2016 | https://www.forsakringskassan.se/efos |
| Sweden | Freja eID | Freja eID Group AB | Private | 2013 | https://frejaeid.com/ |
| Sweden | iGrant.io | iGrant.io (LCubed AB) | Private | 2017 | https://www.igrant.io/ |
| Sweden | National EUDI Wallet | Swedish Government / DIGG | Public | 2026-2027 | |
| Sweden | Svenska Pass (eID) | Swedish Government | Public | 2005 | |
| Switzerland | DeepCloud / DeepID | DeepCloud AG | Private | 2018 | |
| Switzerland | Heidi | Ubique Innovation AG | Private | 2024 | |
| Switzerland | mesoneer | mesoneer AG | Private | 2012 | https://www.mesoneer.io/ |
| Switzerland | SwissID | SwissSign AG (Post, SBB, Swisscom, etc.) | Private (close to the state) | 2017 | https://www.swissid.ch/ |
| Switzerland | swiyu (E-ID Wallet) | Federal Office of Police (fedpol) / Federal Office for Information Technology and Telecommunication (BIT) | Public | Q3/2026 (planned) | https://www.eid.admin.ch/ |
| Switzerland | TWINT (Platform) | TWINT AG (BCV, PostFinance, Raiffeisen, UBS, Zürcher Kantonalbank, SIX, Worldline) | Private | 2016 (Payment-App), E-ID integration planned | https://www.twint.ch/ |
| Serbia | eUprava | Serbian Government | Public | 2009 | https://euprava.gov.rs/ |
| Slovakia | Electronic ID-Card (eID) | Slovak Government | Public | 2013 | |
| Slovakia | National EUDI Wallet | Slovak Government | Public | 2026-2027 | |
| Slovakia | Slovensko v mobile | Slovak Government | Public | 2017 | |
| Slovenia | eOsebna izkaznica (eID-Card) | Slovak Government | Public | 2014 | |
| Slovenia | National EUDI Wallet | Slovenian Government | Public | 2026-2027 | |
| Slovenia | SI-Pass / smsPASS | Slovenian Government | Public | 2006 | |
| Slovenia | SIGEN-CA / SIGOV-CA | Slovenian Government | Public | 2000 | |
| Slovenia | slovensko.si / SI-PASS Portal | Slovenian Government | Public | 2008 | https://www.slovenija.si/ |
| Spain | BakQ (B@kQ) | Slovenian Government | Public | 2005 | https://www.izenpe.eus/ |
| Spain | Cartera Digital Beta | Slovenian Government | Public | 2024 | |
| Spain | Cl@ve | Slovenian Government | Public | 2014 | https://clave.gob.es/ |
| Spain | DNIe (National ID Card) | Slovenian Government | Public | 2006 | |
| Spain | idCAT / idCAT Mòbil | IZENPE (Basque Country) | Public | 2003 | https://identitats.aoc.cat/ |
| Spain | Validated ID | Spanish Government | Private | 2014 | https://www.validatedid.com/ |
| Czech Republic | Bankovní identita (BankID) | Spanish Ministry of the Interior | Private | 2017 | https://www.bankovni-identita.cz/ |
| Czech Republic | CZ.NIC / mojeID | Spanish Government | Private | 2010 | https://www.mojeid.cz/ |
| Czech Republic | eDoklady | Consorci AOC (Catalonia) | Public | 2022 | https://www.edoklady.cz/ |
| Czech Republic | Mobilní eGovernment klíč | Validated ID S.L. | Public | 2016 | |
| Czech Republic | National eID-Card (eObčanka) | Banking Consortium | Public | 2012 | |
| Türkiye | e-Devlet Kapısı (E-Government-Portal) | CZ.NIC z.s.p.o. | Public | 2008 | https://www.turkiye.gov.tr/ |
| Türkiye | T.C. Kimlik Kartı (National ID Card) | Czech Government | Public | 2017 | |
| Türkiye | TÜRKTRUST | Ministry of the Interior | Private | 2005 | https://www.turktrust.com.tr/ |
| Ukraine | BankID NBU | Czech Government | PPP | 2018 | https://id.gov.ua/ |
| Ukraine | Diia (ДіÑ) | Turkish Government | Public | 2020 | https://diia.gov.ua/ |
| Hungary | eSzemélyi (national eID card) | Turkish Government | Public | 2016 | |
| Hungary | National EUDI Wallet | TürkTrust A.łž. | Public | 2024 | |
| Cyprus | CyGov eID | National Bank of Ukraine | Public | 2020 | https://www.cygov.gov.cy/ |
Sources
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- Auto Motor und Sport, Neue EU-Führerschein-Richtlinie: Das ändert sich, März 2025, https://www.auto-motor-und-sport.de/verkehr/eu-fuehrerschein-richtlinie-2025/
- Biometric Update, EU Digital Identity Wallet pilots pull in big names, but questions emerge, Dezember 2024, https://www.biometricupdate.com/202412/eu-digital-identity-wallet-pilots
- Bundesdruckerei, The EUDI Wallet: secure digital identification in Europe, 2024, https://www.bundesdruckerei.de/en/innovation-hub/eudi-wallet
- Bundesministerium des Innern und für Heimat, Die eIDAS-Verordnung – EUDI-Wallets und ihre Bedeutung für europäische digitale Identitäten, 2025, https://www.digitale-verwaltung.de/Webs/DV/DE/digitale-identitaeten/eidas-2-0/
- Bundeskanzleramt Österreich, eGovernment Monitor 2025: Österreich weiterhin an der Spitze im D-A-CH-Vergleich, September 2025, https://www.bundeskanzleramt.gv.at/themen/digitalisierung/egovernment-monitor.html
- DC4EU, Digital Credentials for Europe – Project Overview, 2024, https://www.dc4eu.eu
- e-Estonia Briefing Centre, e-Estonia – Digital Society, 2024, https://e-estonia.com
- EU Digital Identity Wallet Consortium (EWC), About the Consortium, 2024, https://eudiwalletconsortium.org
- Europäische Kommission, Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2024/2979 on the integrity and core functionalities of European Digital Identity Wallets, 28.11.2024, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg_impl/2024/2979/oj
- Europäische Kommission, Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2024/2982 on the protocols and interfaces of European Digital Identity Wallets, 28.11.2024, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg_impl/2024/2982/oj
- Europäische Kommission, EU Digital Identity Wallet – Pilot Implementation, 2024, https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/eudi-wallet-implementation
- Europäische Kommission, The European Digital Identity Wallet Architecture and Reference Framework, Version 1.4, Mai 2024, https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/european-digital-identity-wallet-architecture-and-reference-framework
- Europäische Union, Verordnung (EU) 2024/1183 zur Änderung der Verordnung (EU) Nr. 910/2014, 30.04.2024, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32024R1183
- com, eIDAS 2.0: Redefining Digital Identity in The EU, September 2025, https://www.identity.com/eidas-2-0-redefining-digital-identity-in-the-eu/
- IDnow, Deutschlands Weg zur digitalen Identität, Juli 2025, https://www.idnow.de/blog/deutschlands-weg-zur-digitalen-identitaet/
- Initiative D21 e.V., eGovernment Monitor 2024, September 2024, https://initiatived21.de/egovernment-monitor/
- Initiative D21 e.V., eGovernment Monitor 2025, September 2025, https://initiatived21.de/egovernment-monitor/
- Kuppinger Cole, A Closer Look at eIDAS 2.0 and the EU Digital Identity Wallet, Januar 2024, https://www.kuppingercole.com/blog/a-closer-look-at-eidas-2-0
- NFCW, EU to begin large-scale European Digital Identity Wallet pilots, Dezember 2022, https://www.nfcw.com/2022/12/eu-to-begin-large-scale-european-digital-identity-wallet-pilots/
- NOBID Consortium, Kick-off for NOBID and Large Scale Piloting, Mai 2023, https://www.nobidconsortium.com
- Payment and Banking, Ausblick: Digitale Identität im Jahr 2024, Dezember 2023, https://paymentandbanking.com/digitale-identitaet-2024/
- POTENTIAL Consortium, Technical Insights from the first EUDI wallet pilots, Januar 2025, https://www.digital-identity-wallet.eu/news/
- Sphereon, The new EU eIDAS 2.0 regulation timeline, Mai 2025, https://sphereon.com/news-and-insights/the-new-eu-eidas2-regulation-timeline/
- Tink, eIDAS 2.0: Transforming EU Digital Identity, November 2024, https://tink.com/blog/open-banking/eidas-eu-digital-identity-wallet/
- Utimaco, eIDAS 2.0 and the EU Digital Identity Wallet – Status Quo, Mai 2025, https://utimaco.com/news/blog-posts/eidas-20-and-eu-digital-identity-wallet-status-quo
- Various solutions from European countries, see Table 1.
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